Rural tourism in Europe from a landscape perspective: A systematic review

This systematic review offers a comprehensive analysis of the current state of knowledge regarding tourism in European traditional multifunctional cultural landscapes (TMCLs) from a landscape perspective. Adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines, this study aims to identify the principal contextual themes, geographical patterns, and drivers of change in TMCL tourism research from a theoretical landscape perspective. The outcomes of this systematic review revealed that the study of tourism in European TMCLs is still in its early stages, characterized by a scarcity of studies and a limited representation of countries within the existing literature. The analyzed papers underscore a restricted focus on local stakeholder preferences and carrying capacity, with only one study acknowledging the concept of landscape services. Conversely, government initiatives and local community engagement emerge as the most influential drivers of change in the tourism sector. In view of these findings, this study accentuates the significance of embracing a holistic approach to tourism that integrates living systems thinking and regenerative tourism as key priorities. Consequently, the study suggests that future research prioritize investigating local stakeholder preferences, carrying capacity, and other contextual variables to overcome the current limitations of the literature and shape tourism towards a more resilient and sustainable future. The results of this systematic review provide valuable insights for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the field of tourism in TMCLs. Additionally, they serve as a foundational basis for future research endeavors in this domain.


Introduction
Many rural landscapes throughout Europe are established as leisure, recreation and tourism spaces (Woods, 2011;Carneiro, Lima, & Silva, 2015).Describing the reasons behind why an area is rural and creating a boundary line on a map to distinguish between urban and rural spaces, are challenging tasks.As stated by (Hoggart, 1990, p. 245), "The broad category 'rural' is obfuscatory, whether the aim is description or theoretical evaluation, since intra-rural differences can be enormous and rural-urban similarities can be sharp." In the context of this paper, rural landscapes or spaces refer to areas dominated by natural and seminatural habitats and land-use types, with prevailing agriculture and, forestry (eventually, also smallscale fishery) and relatively (compared to large settlements and urban areas) low human population density.Related to the landscape setting, diverse natural and cultural resources and traditions are present.The interaction of natural and human factors has shaped complex and dynamic rural landscapes, representing historical continuity despite landscape and historical changes.These rural spaces are specific systems rather than simply areas without cities or towns (European Environmental Agency, 2016, p. 338).
The landscape has always been the foundational element used to create tourism.It is the primary intrinsic resource that attracts tourists, combining historical, cultural, traditional, and natural heritage elements (Aranzabal, Schmitz, & Pineda, 2009).For example, a study exploring the relationship between landscape and place identity in tourism argues that the unique characteristics of a landscape can play a crucial role in creating a sense of place for tourists and that this sense of place can have a significant impact on the overall tourist experience (Kastenholz, Marques, & Carneiro, 2020).Some authors argue that without landscapes, there may be no tourism and suggest that given the central role of sightseeing in tourism, as well as the definition of landscape (Council of Europe, 2000) itself, affirm that there can be no tourism without landscape and no landscape without a viewer or observer in the broadest sense of the term (Terkenli, Skowronek, & Georgoula, 2021).
However, landscapes are a highly relevant study scale as landscapes often provide the setting and context for tourism activities and experiences to manifest.A landscape perspective allows for understanding the interactions between various elements within a landscape and tourism.This perspective is particularly vital in identifying critical threats to sustainability that arise in specific regions characterized by unique social, cultural, and ecological attributes, which are essentially landscapes (Kates, 2003).Termorshuizen and Opdam (Termorshuizen & Opdam, 2009) introduced the concept of landscape services, which stems from the multifunctional approach to landscapes and integrates both natural and cultural dimensions.By encompassing both natural and cultural aspects, this concept provides a comprehensive understanding of the diverse functions and values of landscapes.The notion of ecosystem services primarily centers on the functions and advantages of ecosystems and land-use systems.In contrast, landscape services specifically direct attention to the ecological functions of landscapes, encompassing the various processes and interactions occurring within a given landscape, commonly referred to as "landscape functions."(Willemen, Hein, Mensvoort, & Verburg, 2010).Thus, landscape services shed light on the broader ecological dynamics and contributions of landscapes to the surrounding environment.One crucial implication of distinguishing between ecosystem and landscape services is their respective spatial scales.Ecosystem services primarily operate at the level of individual ecosystems or land-use systems, while landscape services transcend these boundaries and consider the collective functions of interconnected social-ecological systems.By incorporating both natural and socio-cultural dimensions, the concept of landscape services offers a more holistic and integrated approach to understanding the multifunctional and dynamic roles and values of landscapes.It recognizes that their ecological attributes do not solely define landscapes; human activities, cultural heritage, and societal interactions also shape landscapes.This comprehensive perspective facilitates a more multifaceted evaluation of landscapes and supports decision-making processes that balance ecological conservation, cultural preservation, and sustainable development objectives.
Additionally, the concept of landscape and landscape services, which incorporates natural and cultural aspects within a spatial unit along with active engagement of local stakeholders, offers an integrated and transdisciplinary approach (Termorshuizen & Opdam, 2009;Vallés-Planells, Galiana, & Eetvelde, 2014).Landscapes consist of complex systems involving multiple stakeholders and decision-makers.Examining tourism at the landscape level facilitates understanding the interactions between these stakeholders and decision-makers, enabling more informed decisions, policies, and strategies.
A particular focus on Traditional Multifunctional Cultural Landscapes (TMCLs) (see section 2 for details) presents an opportunity to balance land use and future land development, particularly in the face of escalating land abandonment and overcrowding in urban centers.Investigating traditional cultural landscapes provides insights into the historical utilization and management of natural resources, as well as the implications of these practices for conservation and sustainable land use (Dieterich & Straaten, 2014).Moreover, it offers an understanding of the cultural identity, memory, and continuity of communities that have lived and interacted with these landscapes, which holds significance, particularly in the context of tourism.Landscapes possess cultural and historical significance, and studying tourism from a landscape perspective allows for an exploration of the impacts and interactions of tourism with cultural and historical heritage.
Although a substantial body of literature exists on tourism in rural landscapes (Panzer-Krause, 2020;Jiménez-García, Ruiz-Chico, & Peña-Sánchez, 2020;Martínez & García, 2021), these studies do not explicitly adopt a landscape lens in their analysis.This study's scope focuses on tourism from a landscape viewpoint rather than tourism in landscapes, meaning that the studies may address the intersection of landscapes and tourism but do not explicitly relate it to the concept of landscape and landscape services.This study aims to systematically review studies that approach tourism through a theoretical landscape perspective.
Accordingly, this study aims to identify the trends and patterns in tourism research in various types of European TMCLs from a theoretical landscape perspective, outlining the current state of knowledge and identifying areas of further study through a systematic review achieved by meeting the following objectives: 1. Identify major contextual themes in European landscape tourism research; 2. Identify the location/geographical patterns in TMCL tourism research; 3. Assess the use of the concept of landscape services in the existing literature; 4. Identify drivers of changes for tourism in TMCLs.

Background
The European Landscape Convention defines landscape as "an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors" (Council of Europe, 2000, pp. chapter 1, art.1).It encompasses natural abiotic and biotic preconditions, human impact and organization, and human perception as a spatial human-ecological system functions (Vallés-Planells, Galiana, & Eetvelde, 2014;Kirchhoff & Fridolin Brand, 2012).Landscapes represent the operational scale for studying the relationship between society and the environment, as they serve as places where people live and work and where ecosystems provide services (Wu, 2013).
According to the UNESCO Operational Guidelines, cultural landscapes embody the interaction between humankind and the natural environment" (UNESCO, 2008).Cultural landscapes, defined as geographical areas where the interplay between human activity and the environment catalyzes ecological, socio-economic, and cultural patterns (Farina, The Cultural Landscape as a Model for the Integration of Ecology and Economics, 2000) serve as junctions where nature and culture, biological and cultural diversity, and tangible and intangible heritage converge, forming an intricate web of relationships that encapsulates the essence of culture and people's identity (Rossler, 2006).
When referring to traditional cultural landscapes, the term 'tradition' encompasses a combination of elements such as land-use patterns, management systems, architecture, governance, language, music, art, dance, sports, food and food processing, as well as medicinal, religious, and spiritual practices, evoking collective memories, identities, and social cohesion (Presenzaa, Petruzzelli, & Sheehan, 2018;Zerbe, 2022).It should be noted that tradition should not be misunderstood as the antithesis of "scientific" or "modern" (Zerbe, 2022).
Using an interdisciplinary approach (Zerbe, 2022) combines the concepts of cultural landscapes, tradition and multifunctionality to crystallize the notion of 'Traditional Multifunctional Cultural Landscapes.'This approach details Traditional Multifunctional Cultural Landscapes (TMCLs) as our heritage and notes that their systematic study and analyses could provide alternative pathways to sustainability from the present 'unsustainable, natural resource depleting and unhealthy industrial behavior' (Zerbe, 2022, p. xi).The study categorizes 12 types of TMCLs worldwide based on their main features and examples of their occurrence.Those 12 categories are namely, forest landscapes, agroforestry landscapes, pasture landscapes, terraced landscapes, irrigation landscapes, lakescapes, riverscapes, saltscapes, seascapes, hunting and park landscapes, monastic landscapes, spiritual and sacred landscapes (Zerbe, 2022, pp. 20-21).
Landscapes possess inherent functions that exist independently of human presence.However, when people value and utilize these functions, they are referred to as landscape services, which constitute the essence of a landscape's attraction, particularly in the context of tourism (Termorshuizen & Opdam, 2009;Woods, 2011).The concept of landscape services, built upon the theoretical foundations of ecosystem services, recognizes landscapes as complex systems shaped by human utilization, with the delivery and value of these services depending on the intricate ecological network structure of the landscape (Opdam, 2013;Westerink, Odam, Rooij, & Steingröver, 2017).The diversity of landscape services aids in identifying stakeholders within the social-ecological network, encompassing providers (such as landowners and managers) and beneficiaries, reflecting a range of interests among stakeholders and providing a framework for analyzing social-ecological networks (Menzel & Teng, 2010;Westerink, Odam, Rooij, & Steingröver, 2017).
Traditional cultural landscapes, predominantly associated with rural areas, exhibit distinctive cultural patterns rooted in prolonged human habitation and land use, which allows for the development of distinctive local knowledge, customs, and traditions (Gómez-Baggethun, Corbera, & Reyes-García, 2013).Rural areas possess stronger connections to the natural environment and its resources, such as water, food, and building materials, compared to urban areas, evident in agroforestry and irrigation systems that reflect the utilization of local resources over time (Bendix, 2013).Agroforestry systems, irrigation systems, and other forms of land management often reflect this connection in the landscape, related to the local natural resources and their use over time.Additionally, rural landscapes often foster a stronger sense of community and social cohesion, reflected in shared cultural features like sacred sites, community gardens, and collective land use (Vale, 2002).This paper focuses mainly on such traditional cultural landscapes.

Study Methods
This systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines (PRISMA, 2021) as shown in Fig 1 .Inclusion criteria for studies were as follows: (1) must be conducted in Europe, as defined by the UN Geoscheme (UNSD, 2010), (2) one of the main research question/s should be related to tourism, (3) must be conducted in a rural space and (4) must be conducted between 1980, i.e. inception of the concept of ecosystem services (ErikGómez-Baggethun, Groot, L.Lomas, & Montes, 2010, p. 1209) and June 2022.In order to identify studies analyzing tourism from a landscape perspective this systematic review uses the types of TMCLs listed in (Zerbe, 2022, pp. 20-21) as keywords.
Two additional keywords, 'therapeutic landscape' and 'sensescape', were added to the list of keywords in the search combination (see Table 1.)In 1992, Wilber M. Gesler introduced the term "therapeutic landscape" to extend the understanding and scope of the landscape concept as previously established in cultural geography.This conceptualization explored the reasons behind perceiving specific landscapes as having therapeutic qualities (Gesler, 1992).In the previous decades, therapeutic landscapes have garnered considerable scholarly interest, leading to a notable upsurge in research dedicated to this subject.Initially, the terminology "therapeutic landscape" denoted exceptional locales renowned for their established healing attributes, drawing individuals who would embark on extensive journeys in search of enhanced well-being.However, in more recent times, the concept has expanded to encompass a broader array of sites or landscapes where individuals can encounter healing experiences.Given the rapid proliferation of wellness tourism globally, a renewed prospect exists to examine the suitability and application of the therapeutic landscape theory within the tourism domain (Huang & Xu, 2018).Given the rapid growth of wellness tourism on a global scale, there is a renewed opportunity to examine the applicability of the therapeutic landscape theory in the context of tourism.Nonetheless, only a limited number of studies have thus far attempted to undertake this endeavor (Buzind & Yarnal, 2012).Similarly, the additional keyword of 'sensescapes' was added to the list of keywords in the search combination.Sensescapes refer to the collection of different sensory experiences that one can have in a particular landscape or environment, and these experiences can include sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations (Bardone & Kaaristo, 2014).When tourists visit a new place, they are immersed in various stimuli, such as a unique view, the sun's warmth, the sounds of local animals or people, and the taste and smell of local food.Regardless of what someone might have heard or read about a destination before arriving, the process of "embodiment" allows them to experience the place directly through their senses (Crouch, 2000).As they process the sensory cues in the environment, the destination becomes a sensescape (Halloy & Servais, 2014).Sensescapes are particularly important in tourism studies, as they demonstrate how sensory perceptions of a landscape can shape tourists' perceptions and experiences.Additionally, how a landscape is perceived through the senses can significantly influence how tourists remember it and even affect their decision to return to the destination (Bunkše, 2012).

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for the systematic review
A comprehensive search of the electronic database Web of Science was conducted using the combination <TMCL type +tourism>, e.g., <Forest landscape AND tourism>.Table 1 shows the types of TMCLs used as search combinations.The papers were screened with respect to the title, abstract, author keywords and keywords plus of all identified studies for eligibility.The search yielded a total of 460 studies.Above mentioned inclusion criteria were applied to the 460 studies and duplicates were removed, resulting in 122 studies.Studies in Turkey (n=20) were removed, resulting in 102 studies.A datasheet developed on Microsoft excel was used to extract from each paper the following data items (1) basic study characteristics (title, author, region of study and country of study), (2) purpose of study, (3) type of landscape, (4) use of concept of landscape services, (5) drivers of change in the tourism sector.
After thoroughly reading the 102 articles, 24 (marked irrelevant) were excluded as they did not contain any of the data items needed to achieve the objectives of this paper.The remaining 78 studies were included in the final synthesis.Countries are divided into four regions (Northern Europe, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe and Western Europe) based on the United Nations Geoscheme for Europe for analysis (UNSD, 2010).
Table 1.Types of TMCLs used & search combination, adapted from (Zerbe, 2022, pp. 20-21) Agroforestry Similarly, a theoretical thematic analysis of the subject areas of the 78 papers was conducted using a six-phase framework developed by (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017), which includes becoming familiar with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining themes, and writing up the findings (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017, p. 3354).This systematic approach facilitates a comprehensive and robust analysis, aiming to identify recurring patterns, referred to as themes, that hold significance and provide more profound understanding of the data.
Appendix 1 shows the list of all studies included in the synthesis of this review.

TMCL type and number of studies
Out of the 78 studies included in the synthesis, Table 2 shows the number of studies according to TMCL type.Out of the 78 studies included in the synthesis, forest landscapes and seascapes have been the focus of the highest number of studies, accounting for 28% and 27% of the total studies, respectively.Park, hunting, and pastoral landscapes have also received some attention in the research, with 15%, 6.5%, and 6.5% of the studies conducted, respectively.Agroforestry landscapes, sacred landscapes, and sensescapes each account for 2.5% of the studies, while terrace landscapes, irrigation landscapes, and monastic landscapes represent 1.25% of the studies each.Additionally, the research includes investigations into the association between therapeutic landscapes and tourism, which comprise 5% of the studies, and sensescapes, accounting for 2.5% of the studies.Notably, the Web of Science database did not show any studies relating to riverscapes and lakescapes.A theoretical thematic analysis of the subject areas of the 78 papers was conducted using a six-phase framework (as mentioned in section 2).The analysis resulted in the identification of 10 major themes.27% of the studies concentrated on investigating tourist preferences, aiming to understand the factors influencing tourists' choices and desires.Another 27% focused on destination management and planning, exploring strategies for effectively managing and developing tourist destinations.Within this category, specific attention was given to destination planning, infrastructure development, and marketing strategies.Approximately 23% of the studies delved into various types of tourism, including but not limited to eco-tourism and nature-based tourism.Of particular interest was exploring naturebased and eco-tourism (see section 5).These studies aimed to uncover the unique characteristics, challenges, and potential benefits associated with these forms of tourism.Furthermore, 18% of the studies delved into the impacts of tourism.This investigation predominantly focused on evaluating tourism activities' environmental and social impacts.Specific attention was given to the livestock farming industry, economic implications, and conflicts within hunting and park landscapes.The remaining studies encompassed a range of topics, each representing a smaller percentage of the overall focus.This includes 5% of studies centered on tourism in cultural landscapes, aiming to unravel the intricate connections between tourism and cultural heritage.Additionally, 2.5% of the studies explored the concept of willingness to pay and another 2.5% focused on ecosystem services.Lastly, 1.25% of the studies concentrated on determining the carrying capacity of destinations, aiming to establish optimal visitor numbers to maintain a balance between tourism development and environmental preservation.

Geographical patterns in TMCL tourism research
The synthesis of studies included in the analysis revealed distinct regional distributions concerning the geographical scope of research.Southern Europe emerged as the most extensively studied region, accounting for 41% of the included studies, followed by Northern Europe, representing 26% of the studies.Eastern Europe encompassed 17% of the studies, while Western Europe constituted 14%.Notably, only one study was conducted on the European Union scale.The regional distribution of studies according to landscape type is presented in Table 3. Regarding individual country representation, 18 out of 43 European countries were represented.Spain exhibited the highest representation, accounting for 14% of the studies, and Germany followed closely with 12%.Conversely, other Western European countries displayed relatively lower numbers of studies.Finland and Norway shared an equal proportion, with each country accounting for 10% of the studies.Several countries in Southern Europe also demonstrated significant representation in the research.Italy accounted for 10% of the studies, followed by Portugal with 8%, and Greece with 5%.Additionally, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia collectively represented 4% of the studies.These findings shed light on the regional and country-specific distributions of research efforts, illustrating the varying degrees of scholarly attention given to different European regions and countries in relation to tourism in traditional multifunctional cultural landscapes.

The concept of landscape services in TMCLs
Only one study, conducted by Spina and Giorno (2021) among the 78 studies included in the synthesis, explicitly addresses landscape services.This particular study focuses on testing a multistakeholder spatial decision-making process within the tourism sector of Sila National Park, located in Southern Italy and designated as a UNESCO world heritage site.According to the authors (Spina & Giorno, 2021, p. 1), the primary objective of the study is to assist the park's community in gaining a deeper understanding of the park's values and resources, as well as to encourage co-design efforts for the improvement and management of environmental and cultural sites.The research methodology employed by (Spina & Giorno, 2021) incorporates the concept of landscape functions and services.Notably, the term "landscape services" remains undefined within the paper.Nevertheless, the authors provide limited information regarding the categorization of landscape services into macro-functions and the utilization of corresponding indicators.

Drivers of change for tourism in TMCLs
The drivers of change in the context of this study are categorized into three main groups: national, supranational, and global drivers.National drivers refer to factors manifesting at the country or local level.Supranational drivers encompass factors influenced by groups within Europe, independent of individual nations, such as the European Union.Global drivers refer to factors manifesting on a global scale.

Discussion
The predominant focus of the studies in the analysis revolved around forest landscapes, accounting for 27% of the total studies.This prevalence can be attributed to the recognition of forests as significant locations for recreational activities and opportunities for nature-based experiences (Briassoulis, 2002).
The cultural and historical importance associated with forests captures the interest of tourists, resulting in a higher influx of visitors and consequently attracting more research attention.Following closely, seascapes or coastal landscapes garnered considerable attention in the literature, representing 27% of the studies.This finding aligns with previous research (Meyer-Arendt, 2018) emphasizing the early and extensive exploration of coastal landscapes in tourism.The appeal of coastal landscapes can be attributed to the substantial number of tourists they receive (Priskin, 2001) and the wide range of recreational activities they offer (Tress, 2002).
In contrast, the analysis revealed a need for tourism-related studies focusing on riverscapes and lakescapes.One possible explanation for this gap could be the lack of use of the terms 'riverscapes and landscapes'; instead, they might be called landscapes near lakes or rivers.Another possible reason could be the overlapping of these landscape types with others.From a theoretical landscape perspective, the concept of overlapping landscapes delves into the notion that landscapes are not isolated entities with clear-cut boundaries but rather complex systems comprised of overlapping spatial units.The concept of overlapping landscapes presents a departure from the conventional perception of landscapes as discrete and independent entities, instead highlighting their interconnectedness and the intricate layers of the spatial organization they encompass (Wu, 2013).This perspective recognizes that landscapes are characterized by spatial heterogeneity and diversity, where different elements influence one another through ecological, social, and cultural processes (Farina, 2006).

Category
Despite extensive research on terrace landscapes (Zerbe, 2022), only one study was found in the analyzed literature.Similarly, irrigation and monastic landscapes each had only one study, highlighting the clear need for future research endeavors in these specific landscape contexts.These findings underscore the significance of forest and coastal landscapes in tourism research while simultaneously highlighting the need for increased attention to be directed towards riverscapes, lakescapes, irrigation landscapes, and monastic landscapes.Future studies exploring these landscape types will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of their tourism potential and enhance our knowledge of tourism in the diverse landscape contexts.Similarly, out of all the analyzed papers, it is noteworthy that only one mentions the concept of landscape services.This limited concept inclusion may be attributed to its novelty and inadequate integration with tourism.
A significant portion of research in the field of tourism has traditionally focused on two main areas: tourist preferences and perceptions (27%) and destination management (27%).While these topics are important, it is crucial to consider the preferences and perceptions of local stakeholders, a research area that has received limited attention (5%).While studies focusing on tourist perceptions are vital, local stakeholders, such as residents, business owners, and community leaders, play a crucial role in tourism management and planning, as their preferences and perceptions can significantly impact the success and sustainability of tourism in a particular area.It is crucial to involve them in the planning process, gather their input and feedback, and consider their concerns (Wang, Jiang, Xu, & Guo, 2021).For instance, a study by (Gössling, Hall, & Scott, 2015) found that involving local residents in tourism planning can lead to greater community ownership and support for tourism development.Their findings revealed that such involvement could foster greater community ownership and support for tourism development.
Furthermore, a limited number of studies (1%) have examined the concept of carrying capacity in destinations.Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of tourists or visitors a destination can accommodate without causing an unacceptable decline in the local community, resources, or visitor experience (Wall, 2020).Understanding the carrying capacity of a destination is crucial for tourism managers and planners as it allows them to make informed decisions regarding the development and management of tourism activities and avoids detrimental environmental, social or cultural impacts on the local community.By incorporating these aspects into tourism research and planning, we can promote sustainable tourism development that benefits both tourists and local communities.
Various types of tourism have been described in the literature, including eco-tourism, nature-based tourism, and creative forms of tourism such as mycotourism, and pescatourism.Nature-based tourism is a broad concept encompassing activities that individuals engage in while on holiday, focusing on connecting with nature and often involving an overnight stay (Ahtikoski, et al., 2011).This type of tourism provides opportunities for experiencing natural environments and often incorporates an understanding of local cultures and tradition.Pescatourism is characterized as a sustainable tourist experience where visitors actively participate in fishing operations, including casting and pulling in nets, partaking in freshly caught fish cooked on board, and visiting fishing villages in Sardinia, Italy (Lai, Cicia, & Giudice, 2016).This experience fosters a shared vision between tourists and locals, encouraging the latter to preserve the environment and recognize the economic and social benefits associated with tourism development.Concurrently, tourists gain insights into Mediterranean coastal societies' traditional fishing practices and culture.Mycotourism is defined as a specialized product of eco-tourism that attracts individuals from diverse demographics to engage in mushroom harvesting in forested areas.It encompasses various socio-cultural activities, economic benefits, and gastronomy-related sectors (Büntgen, Latorre, Egli, & Martínez-Peña, 2017).This particular study was conducted in the Spanish Province of Soria, approximately 150 km north of Madrid, where mycologists, foresters, gastronomes, farmers, and politicians collaborated to develop a comprehensive program on mushroomrelated topics.Through joint efforts involving local, national, and Europe-wide initiatives, this endeavor generated public interest in mushroom picking and associated activities.The growing awareness of mycotourism significantly increased both local and international interest in the region, benefiting regional gastronomy and the hotel sector.This phenomenon also highlights the advantages of synergistic cooperation between local stakeholders and governmental agents in tourism development.
Furthermore, an analysis of the literature reveals a need for more research on tourism study and analysis from a landscape perspective across Europe as a whole.Out of the 43 countries listed as part of Europe by the UN Geoscheme for Europe (UNSD, 2010), the study included only 18 countries, indicating the limited coverage of tourism research in Europe from a landscape perspective.Moreover, most of the studies were conducted in regions that are renowned tourist destinations, such as Italy, Spain, and Portugal.
As mentioned earlier, drivers of change in the context of this study are categorized into three main groups: local, supranational, and global drivers.Local drivers of change include various social factors.These encompass the stagnation of available tourism activities (Samora-Arvela, Ferreira, Vaz, & Panagopoulos, 2019), increased demand for high-quality holidays (Tejada, Malvárez, & Navas, 2009;Medina-Munoz & Medina-Munoz, 2012), the availability of new recreational activities (Kling, Dahlberg, & Wall-Reinius, 2019), land abandonment (Martino & Muenzel, 2018;Pröbstl-Haider & Haider, 2014), population depletion (Santoro, Venturi, & Agnoletti, 2020;Loumou, C.Giourga, & Koukoulas, 2000), and a growing public interest in nature (Haukeland, Daugstad, & Vistad, 2011).Government initiatives also contribute to local drivers of change and can include local management plans (Bego & Malltezi, 2011;Sergiacomi, Vuletic, Paletto, Barbierato, & Fagarazzi, 2022)), policy schemes (Bryn & Debella-Gilo, 2011), national funds, and strategic tourist plans (Albuquerque, Martins, & Costa, 2009;Genovese, Culasso, Giacosa, & Battaglini, 2017).Community initiatives, such as private investments in the tourism sector (Tyrväinena, et al., 2014), innovation of new recreational activities (e.g., mycotourism and pescatourism), and other local initiatives in the form of contextual strategies to promote tourism (Fonseca, et al., 2014;Øian, 2013;Tikkanen, Hokajarvi, Hujala, & Kurttila, 2017), also play a role in driving change.Infrastructural developments, including the construction of tourist accommodation facilities, hiking trails, amenities, the growth of tourist centers, and improvements in transportation accessibility, also contribute to local drivers of change (Marín-Yaseli, Laguna, & Lasant, 2003;Czalczynska-Podolska, 2020).Marketing efforts, such as the use of documentaries and the promotion of nature sports, also fall under local drivers (Voda & Moldovan, 2017).Government factors (39%, n=45) were identified as the leading local driver of change, followed by social factors, community initiatives, and infrastructural development.Supranational drivers of change involve factors influenced by the European Union (EU).These include funds from the EU, such as rural development funds, subsidies, cultural conservation and promotion funds, and grants.Only one study reported increased access to certain areas after the end of the communist period as a driver of change (Kołodziejczyk, 2021), while all other supranational factors are in some way funded by the EU (Krzemińska, Dzikowska, Zaręba, & Jarosz, 2018;Zydroń, Kayzer, Fiedler, & Korytowski, 2020).This suggests that the EU employs these strategies as part of its rural development initiatives.Global drivers of change in the tourism landscape encompass various factors, including modernization, technological advancements, changes in employment patterns, the fashionability of specific areas, and the growth of the middle class.Modernization and technological advancements, particularly in the transportation sector, have significantly influenced tourism.As employment patterns have modernized, individuals have experienced increased income and more free time, enabling greater participation in tourism activities.The fashionability of some specific regions, driven by changing trends and preferences, has also shaped tourism patterns.Furthermore, the growth of the middle class in various countries has contributed to the expansion of the tourism industry.The COVID-19 pandemic has emerged as a significant global driver of change in the tourism industry (Silva, Sousa, & Albuquerque, 2022;Więckowski & J.Timothy, 2021).Climate change has also been identified as a global driver of change in the tourism sector (Buntgen, Latorre, & Martinez-Pena, 2017;Salim, Ravanel, & Gauchon, 2021).The effects of climate change, including temperatures, extreme weather events, and environmental degradation, pose challenges to tourism destinations, necessitating adaptations and sustainability measures.One study (Buntgen, Latorre, & Martinez-Pena, 2017) mentioned global political factors as a driver of change.Political events and decisions on a global scale can impact tourism flows, policies, and regulations.

Conclusion
This systematic review highlights the current state of research on tourism from a landscape perspective in Europe, indicating that this field is still in its developmental stage, as reflected by the limited number of available studies for analysis and the relatively low representation of countries (18 out of 43).It is crucial to identify future research directions in this field.The review reveals several research gaps that need to be addressed in future studies.
Firstly, one notable research gap revealed in the review is the lack of emphasis on local stakeholder preferences and perceptions in the reviewed papers.Understanding the preferences and perceptions of local stakeholders, including residents, business owners, and community leaders, is crucial as they play a significant role in tourism management and planning.Therefore, future research should prioritize investigating these aspects to ensure the inclusion of local perspectives in tourism planning, development and management.Secondly, there is a bias towards forest and coastal landscapes or seascapes in the distribution of research focus.Other landscape contexts, such as riverscapes, lakescapes, irrigation landscapes, and monastic landscapes, are underrepresented in tourism studies.Further investigations in these areas are necessary to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the tourism potential and implications of these less-studied landscape contexts.Thirdly, the concept of carrying capacity, which is crucial in sustainable tourism development, is insufficiently addressed in the literature.Given its significance in sustainable tourism development, particularly in European cultural landscapes, future studies should prioritize examining carrying capacity to inform more efficient and sustainable tourism development in specific destinations.Fourthly, landscape services, which encompass the various benefits and values of landscapes, are only mentioned in one study, indicating a gap in understanding the role of landscapes in providing various services to tourists and local stakeholders.Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate the concept of landscape services into future tourism research to understand better and assess the multifaceted contributions of landscapes.Furthermore, government initiatives and local community engagement have been identified as powerful drivers of change in the tourism sector.Future research should focus on strategies that effectively integrate these components, leveraging their potential for sustainable tourism development.By studying how governments and communities collaborate, researchers can identify approaches that promote sustainable tourism practices, strategies and mitigate potential negative impacts.
It is essential to acknowledge that this study focuses explicitly on tourism from a landscape perspective rather than tourism in landscapes.Consequently, limitations may arise from relying on a single database and using specific keywords for searching.Researchers and readers should consider these limitations when interpreting the results to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research findings.
Lastly, adopting a holistic approach to tourism is crucial in addressing the aforementioned research gaps.Future research should explore living systems thinking and regenerative tourism paradigms to comprehensively address these gaps.By exploring these frameworks, researchers can promote a more resilient and regenerative future for tourism, moving beyond its sole consideration as an economic industry.This exploration will help shape tourism as a tool and a path toward sustainable development.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Major contextual themes of the reviewed papers.

Table 2 .
Number of studies according to TMCL type

Table 3 .
Number of studies according to region, country and TMCL typeAs seen in table 4, within national drivers, contextual social factors, which encompass the social context and dynamics surrounding tourism in TMCLs, were discussed in 10 papers.These factors shed light on the social aspects that shape and influence tourism experiences in TMCLs.Government initiatives, highlighted in 13 papers, signify the role of governmental actions and policies in driving changes within the tourism sector.These initiatives can encompass a broad array of measures to promote, regulate, or support tourism development.Similarly, community initiatives, explored in 10 papers, represent the involvement and engagement of local communities in the management and development of tourism activities.This involvement can range from community-led initiatives to collaborative partnerships with external stakeholders.Infrastructural development, discussed in 10 papers, pertains to the construction, improvement, or expansion of physical infrastructure such as transportation networks, accommodation facilities, and recreational amenities, all aimed at facilitating tourism development.Lastly, marketing, mentioned in 2 papers, highlights the strategies and activities undertaken to promote and advertise tourist destinations.Grants, discussed in 2 papers, represent financial aid awarded to individuals or organizations involved in tourism projects or research.Lastly, increased access after the communist period, mentioned in 1 paper, pertains to the opening up previously restricted or inaccessible areas following the fall of communist regimes, leading to new opportunities and challenges for tourism development in TMCLs.In terms of global drivers, modernization and technological advancements, addressed in 4 papers, encompass the adoption and integration of technological innovations and advancements in various aspects of tourism operations and experiences.COVID-19, explored in 2 papers, signifies the profound impacts of the global pandemic on tourism, including travel restrictions, health and safety measures, and changes in tourist behavior and demand.Climate change also discussed in 2 papers, refers to the long-term shifts in climatic conditions and associated environmental changes that pose challenges and opportunities for tourism activities in TMCLs.Lastly, global political factors, mentioned in 1 paper, denote the geopolitical dynamics and international relations that can influence the development and management of tourism in TMCLs.
Turning to supranational drivers: rural development funds, examined in 4 papers, encompass financial resources allocated to enhance rural areas.Subsidies mentioned in 3 papers refer to financial incentives or assistance to stimulate and support tourism initiatives.Cultural conservation and promotion funds, explored in 3 papers, denote resources allocated for preserving, promoting, and valorization of cultural

Table 4 .
Drivers of change with number of papers